¿Medicalizar al delincuente o hacer del loco un criminal?: Prácticas de alienismo y medicina legal en Colombia a comienzos del siglo XX / Medicalizing delinquents or turning the mad into criminals?: Practices of alienation and legal medicine in Colombia in the early the 20th century

RESUMEN Este artículo analiza algunas asociaciones médico-jurídicas entre locura y criminalidad en el departamento de Antioquia (Colombia), en las primeras tres décadas del siglo XX. El análisis se orientó por dos ejes imbricados: el de los discursos y el de las prácticas. Se examinaron las ideas de cuatro médicos, planteadas entre 1917 y 1925, para identificar los debates teóricos desde los cuales se delimitaban y definían las enfermedades mentales en casos judiciales. La puesta en escena del saber de los peritos y su lugar como expertos se analizaron en un caso judicial, que inició en 1921, y en cuyo desarrollo afloraron las confrontaciones teóricas entre los médicos que debatieron sobre la posible locura del acusado.

ABSTRACT This article analyzes medical-legal associations between madness and criminality in department of Antioquia (Colombia) during the three first decades of 20th century. The analysis was oriented by two overlapping axes: discourses and practices. The ideas of four doctors, generated between 1917 and 1925, were examined in order to identify the theoretical debates that delimited and defined mental illnesses in legal cases. The use of qualified knowledge and their place as experts were analyzed in a judicial case, initiated in 1921, in which theoretical confrontations surfaced among the doctors that debated the possible insanity of the defendant.

Expressões da sexualidade e de gênero na injunção crime-loucura: engendramentos moralizantes no tratamento do paciente judiciário / Expressions of sexuality and gender at the interface between crime and madness: moralizing conceptions in the treatment of the "criminally insane" patient / Expresiones de sexualidad y género en procedimientos judiciales relacionados con casos de crimen-locura: sentencias moralizadoras en el trato a pacientes judiciales

Este artigo tem por objetivo analisar a forma como as expressões da sexualidade e de gênero emergem nos trâmites judiciais que definem os destinos dos sujeitos na injunção crime-loucura. Para isso, explora os processos penais referentes às pessoas em sofrimento mental que cometeram crimes, os chamados pacientes judiciários, que recebem uma medida de segurança. Utilizando-se da genealogia como aporte metodológico, adentra-se nas condições de proveniência e de emergência do "anormal", figura produzida e esquadrinhada pelo discurso médico-jurídico. Foram analisadas seis peças judiciais, focando principalmente os laudos psiquiátricos de pessoas não heterossexuais e/ou não cisgêneras que receberam uma medida de segurança. A análise do córpus indica que a base teórico-conceitual na qual se sustentam os pressupostos da medida de segurança se concentra no laudo psiquiátrico. A análise do discurso médico-jurídico aponta para uma valoração moral das expressões da sexualidade e de gênero do paciente judiciário considerado "desviante". Por fim, sinalizam-se alternativas de produção de novos modelos de tratamento para o paciente judiciário, que buscam superar a ficção da presunção de periculosidade como base pretensamente científica, revisando a inimputabilidade como dispositivo jurídico que viola direitos inalienáveis dos sujeitos na injunção crime-loucura.

This article aims to analyze how expressions of sexuality and gender emerge in the legal proceedings that determine the fate of individuals at the interface between crime and madness. The text explores the criminal proceedings against persons in mental distress that have committed crimes, or so-called "criminally insane" patients, and who are subject to security measures. Using genealogy as the methodological approach, the article analyzes the conditions underlying the source and emergence of the "abnormal", a figure produced and scrutinized by forensic medical discourse. Six court briefs were analyzed, focusing especially on the psychiatric reports pertaining to non-heterosexual and/or non-cisgender persons that were subjected to security measures. Analysis of the textual corpus indicates that the theoretical and conceptual basis for the assumptions in the security measures focuses on the forensic psychiatric report. The analysis of the forensic medical discourse points to a moral judgment of the expressions of sexuality and gender in the criminally insane patient, considered "deviant". Finally, the article signals alternatives for the production of new treatment modalities for the criminally insane patient, seeking to supplant the presumption of danger to society as a purportedly scientific concept, reviewing non-imputability as a legal device that violates the inalienable rights of individuals at the interface between crime and madness.

El objetivo de este trabajo ha sido analizar la forma en la que surgen expresiones de sexualidad y género en procedimientos judiciales, que definen las sentencias a sujetos durante los trámites judiciales relacionados con casos de crimen-locura. Para tal fin, investiga procesos penales en relación con personas que padecen enfermedades mentales y que cometieron crímenes, denominados pacientes judiciales, a quienes se les otorgan medidas de seguridad. Utilizando la genealogía como aporte metodológico, se adentra en las condiciones de procedencia y emergencia de lo "anormal", figura creada y escudriñada dentro del discurso médico-jurídico. Se analizaron seis autos judiciales, centrándose principalmente en los dictámenes psiquiátricos de personas no heterosexuales y/o no cisgénero, a quienes se les otorgó medidas de seguridad. El análisis del corpus indica que la base teórico-conceptual, en la que se basan los presupuestos de las medidas de seguridad, se concentra en el dictamen psiquiátrico. El análisis del discurso médico-jurídico apunta a una valoración moral de las expresiones de la sexualidad y de género del paciente judicial, considerado como "desviado". Finalmente, se señalan alternativas para la producción de nuevos modelos de tratamiento en el caso del paciente judicial, que buscan superar la ficción de la presunción de peligrosidad, como base presuntamente científica, revisando la inimputabilidad como dispositivo jurídico que viola derechos inalienables de los individuos en los procedimientos judiciales relacionados con casos de crimen-locura.

"Essa medida de segurança é infinita ou tem prazo de vencimento?" - interlocuções e desafios entre o Direito e a Psicologia no contexto judiciário / "Are measures infinite or do they have an expiry date?" - interlocution and challenges between Law and Psychology in the juridical context

A Seção Psicossocial da Vara de Execuções Penais do Tribunal de Justiça do Distrito Federal e Territórios ocupa-se do atendimento a pessoas que cumprem medida de segurança, ou seja, uma sentença judicial que as define como doentes e criminosas. Encaminhadas ao contexto judiciário, há dois caminhos a serem percorridos por elas: o tratamento ambulatorial e a internação em hospital de custódia e tratamento psiquiátrico. Nesses percursos, requisitos, como exames para verificar a cessação de periculosidade, tempo de reclusão e existência de parente que as acolha, são observados para permitir uma decisão judicial favorável à desinternação condicional, ou seja, a uma desvinculação da Justiça. Trata-se de um terceiro caminho possível. Por meio da análise de um caso emblemático, este artigo busca inquirir sobre a disciplina infligida a essas pessoas. Intenta-se, assim, dar voz a inimputáveis e/ou semi-imputáveis, pessoas consideradas inteiramente ou parcialmente incapazes de responder pelo caráter ilícito do ato que cometeram, de acordo com o Código Penal. As interlocuções e os desafios existentes entre o Direito e a Psicologia no contexto judiciário emergem como possibilidade de construção de outro discurso por elas, de uma fala que busque a aquisição de autonomia e a responsabilização.

The Psychosocial Section of the Criminal Executions Court of the Federal District Court of Justice assists people who are under civil commitment, namely a legal sentence that labels them as sick people and criminals. In the juridical context, there are two options facing them: outpatient treatment or internment in a secure hospital facility and psychiatric treatment. In these options, requirements, such as tests to verify the cessation of danger, duration of imprisonment and existence of a relative who can shelter them, are examined to permit a favorable judicial decision of conditional release leading to removal from the sphere of justice. This is a third possible path. Through the analysis of an emblematic case, this article seeks to examine the sentence imposed on these people. The intention is, therefore, to give voice to the unimputable and/or the semi-imputable, people who are considered wholly or partially unable to respond to the illicit nature of the act they have committed, according to the Brazilian Criminal Code. The interlocution and the challenges between law and psychology in the juridical context emerge as a possibility by them of building another discourse, a line of thought that seeks the acquisition of autonomy and responsibility.

Professional misconduct or criminal negligence: when does the balance tilt.

On September 13, 2013, the Supreme Court absolved Dr Praful Desai, an oncologist, of conviction on the charge of criminal medical negligence in the treatment of one of his patients. This article examines the judgment of the Supreme Court in the light of medical negligence and criminal jurisprudence.

Corruption in healthcare: a problem in Germany, too.

According to Transparency International, corruption is "the abuse of entrusted power for private gain". In many parts of Latin America, Africa and Asia, corruption is associated with healthcare in the daily life of patients, as well as routines in all types of hospitals. In the developing world, this crude corruption is felt at every moment in life: patients are often (well) treated or even allowed to see a doctor only if they pay a bribe. Money is directly and openly paid to all kinds of players in the health system: to doctors, hospitals, nurses, or administrative staff.

On criminalisation and pathology: a commentary on the Supreme Court judgment on Section 377.

The judgment delivered last week by the Supreme Court of India, upholding the constitutionality of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), overturns a judgment by the Delhi High Court in 2009 that decriminalised sexual activity between two consenting adults. This judgment has unleashed a veritable firestorm of protest in the public space. There has been a heated and vitriolic debate on this issue in the print and social media, as well as television, with public opinion, in the main, being critical of the judgment.

Estudio de las denuncias penales por responsabilidad profesional médica en el Instituto de Medicina Legal de Lima, Perú / Criminal claims about medical professional liability in the Instituto de Medicina Legal of Lima, Peru

Objetivos. Determinar las características de las denuncias penales por responsabilidad profesional médica, a partir de los informes periciales emitidos en la División Clínico Forense de Lima, Perú. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio transversal donde se incluyeron todos los informes periciales emitidos del 2005 al 2010, en la División Clínico Forense de Lima, Perú. Se realizó el análisis descriptivo de cada una de las variables. Resultados. El 60,3% (495/821) de las denuncias penales por responsabilidad profesional médica fueron valoradas como acuerdo a la lex artis; el 16,8% (138/821) no acuerdo a la lex artis; en 13% (107/821) de los casos no se pudo emitir conclusiones, y en 9,9% (81/821) las conclusiones del informe pericial no incluyen una valoración del acto médico. Los casos donde la lesión se atribuyó al propio proceso de la enfermedad correspondieron al 80,9% (502/620), y los que se consideraron resultado de la asistencia sanitaria al 19,0% (118/620). La distribución de la causa de la lesión según el cumplimiento de la lex artis mostró diferencias significativas. Conclusiones. En nuestro país, las denuncias por presunta responsabilidad médica se encuentran en aumento, predominantemente en las especialidades quirúrgicas, donde la probabilidad de ser considerado como un acto médico no adecuado a la lex artis es mayor. Asimismo en un porcentaje importante de casos no se llegan a emitir conclusiones valorativas sobre el acto médico.

Objectives.To determine the characteristics of the criminal complaints claining medical professional liability, based on the expert reports issued by the Forensic Examination Division of Lima, Peru. Materials and methods. A cross-sectional study was carried out, which included all the expert reports issued between 2005 and 2010 at the Forensic Examination Division of Lima, Peru. A descriptive analysis of each of the variables was performed. Results. 60.3% (495/821) of the criminal complaints for medical professional liability were valued as being in accordance with the lex artis while16.8% (138/821) were not in accordance with the lex artis. In 13% (107/821) of the cases, conclusions could not be drawn;in 9.9% (81/821) of the cases, the conclusions in the expert report did not include an valuations of the medical act.The cases in which the injury was attributed to the process of the disease itself accounted for 80.9% (502/620), and those in which in the injury was considered a result of the health care received were 19.0% (118/620). The distribution of the cause of the injury based on accordance with the lex artis showed significant differences. Conclusions. In our country, the number of claims for claimed medical liability is increasing, predominantly in relation to surgical specialties, where a medical act is more likely to be considered not in accordance with the lex artis. In addition, in a significant percentage of cases, no conclusions are drawn about the medical act.

La penalización de las relaciones sexuales entre o con adolescentes y su efecto en el ejercicio de los derechos sexuales y reproductivos / The criminalization of sexual relations between or with adolescents and its impact on the exercise of their sexual and reproductive rights

El artículo analiza los efectos en el Perú de la aprobación de la Ley 28704 en el año 2006, la cual determinó que toda relación sexual entre los 14 y menos de 18 años, así sea consentida, fuera considerada una violación sexual, la cual criminaliza la sexualidad adolescente y originar una situación de ilegalidad de los servicios de prevención en salud reproductiva. Esta decisión se dio sin considerar los marcos legales que reconocen y protegen los derechos sexuales y reproductivos, las necesidades de los adolescentes en el campo de su sexualidad, así como sus repercusiones en los problemas de salud pública. En el año 2012, esta Ley se declaró inconstitucional. El cumplimiento de esta sentencia debería permitir implementar y mejorar las políticas públicas de educación sexual y el acceso a servicios de salud de calidad; en busca de generar leyes más efectivas que protejan a los adolescentes de la violencia sexual.

This article analyzes the impact of the decrete 28704, issued in 2006, on the Peruvian society. This Law states that all sexual relations between the age of 14 and an age younger than 18, whether consented or not, shall be considered rape, thus criminalizing adolescent sexuality and making preventive reproductive health services illegal. This decision was made disregarding the legal frameworks which recognize and protect sexual and reproductive rights, the needs of adolescents regarding sexuality, as well as its impact on public health issues. In 2012, this Law was declared unconstitutional. The enforcement of this sentence shall enable the implementation and improvement of public sexual education policies and the access to quality health care. An effort to create more effective laws to protect adolescents from sexual violence must be made.

Adolescentes y delito: un oscuro día de justicia / [Teenagers and crime: a dark day of justice].

The methods of intervention and/or treatment of children/teenagers under 18 years old who are accused or found guilty of crimes are analyzed taking into consideration multidisciplinary intervention tools, especially those including any kind of ’psy’ outpatient care. These programs, which are usually deployed in the social milieu, involve a conflictive junction between the fields of Law and Mental Health. It shall be required to review the different social responses to such children and teenagers and the current state of legal discussions in order to reflect upon the singular inclusion of the therapeutic approach to these complex contexts, where the ’socio-educational’ aspect has occupied a substantial position.

Forensic onychology: An essential entity against crime.

Forensic Onychology (Greek word, Onuks = nail, Logia = study of) is the subject which deals with study of fingernails and toenails for better administration of justice in the court of law. Identification means determination of individuality of a person. Nails are important tissues for human identification. One of the major advantages of utilizing nail is that, in comparison with other tissues, sample size and sampling process can be considered relatively non invasive and non destructive and yet each nail retains a discrete record of detailed information on genetic inheritance, drug use, pathology, diet and location history as well as exposure to explosives residues or other pollutants. In contrast to soft tissues, nails survive relatively well in the decomposition environment. Furthermore, in contrast to other long lasting tissues (such as bone and teeth) nails are easy to decontaminate from external sources of DNA. Thus examination of nail is very useful in many ways against crime. In this paper, we discussed about structure and method of analysis of nail, utility of examination, drug use and nails and detection of DNA from nails.

Illicit tobacco trade between the United States and Mexico / El comercio ilícito de tabaco entre los Estados Unidos y México

OBJECTIVE: To provide a brief history of the illicit tobacco trade between Mexico and the United States. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Research included a previously published study: "Cigarette taxes and smuggling: A statistical analysis and historical review", published by the Mackinac Center for Public Policy; US Customs and Border Protection data; various US court documents; General Accountability Office reporting; media reports; other historical material, and a personal interview. RESULTS: The research revealed that there is no credible evidence of organized criminal activity related to the illicit trade in tobacco products from Mexico into the United States. However, there is clear and convincing evidence of organized criminal activity in smuggling tobacco products from the United States into Mexico for at least 167 years. CONCLUSION: Historical records from 1845 into the 21st century clearly demonstrate that the United States was usually the source country for tobacco products moving illegally between the two countries.

OBJETIVO: Describir brevemente la historia del comercio ilícito de tabaco entre Estados Unidos y México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: La investigación incluye publicaciones previas, como "Impuestos sobre los cigarrillos y el contrabando: Un análisis histórico y estadístico"; datos de la Agencia de Aduanas y Protección Fronteriza; varios documentos de la Corte; los informes de la Oficina General de Rendición de Cuentas de EU; notas de prensa; materiales históricos, y una entrevista personal. RESULTADOS: La investigación reveló que no hay pruebas creíbles de actividad delictiva organizada relacionada con el comercio ilícito de productos de tabaco de México a EU. Sin embargo, hay pruebas claras y convincentes de que esta actividad se ha realizado de EU a México por lo menos durante 167 años. CONCLUSIÓN: Los registros históricos desde el año 1845 claramente demuestran que EU solía ser el país de origen del tabaco ilegal entre los dos países.

Applications of DNA identification technology in protection of wild animals / 法医学杂志

With the development of biotechnology, forensic DNA identification technology in protection of wild animals has been used more and more widely. This review introduces the global status of wildlife crime and the relevant protection to wildlife, outlines the practical applications of forensic DNA identification technology with regard to species identification, determination of geographic origin, individual identification and paternity identification. It focus on the techniques commonly used in DNA typing and their merits and demerits, as well as the problems and prospects of forensic DNA technology for wildlife conservation.

Canhestros caminhos retos: Notas sobre a segregação prisional do portador de sofrimento mental infrator / Clumsy straight paths: notes on prison segregation of the lawbreaker with mental suffering

O horror da realidade encontrada nos manicômios, ausência de cuidados, tratamento e de direitos. Simultaneamente, a sociedade expõe seus agouros, por atos praticados como espetaculares. Daí exige-se do Estado que faça desaparecer com estes mensageiros do pior, os quais são desprovidos de sua historicidade, reconhecimento da sua complexidade humana e social. O pedindo silencioso de socorro deste cidadão, ao seu modo, não foi ouvido por esta mesma sociedade. A angústia, o sofrimento e o transtorno direcionam o indivíduo ao cometimento de ato "bárbaro". Há, neste contexto, ausência de assistência ao grito de desespero, a desconsideração, descaso e desrespeito implícito no modelo de assistência à saúde, que se torna, então, em problema do judiciário. Resta, então, apresentá-lo como um "psicopata", irrecuperável da loucura e do convívio social, não restando outra saída, senão a sua contensão e exclusão da ordem social. Ao Estado, resta discutir termos: Responsabilidade ou Inimputabilidade? Igualdade e diferença. Ainda, conviver com a dicotomia de que a legislação é influenciada pelo Movimento da Luta Antimanicomial.

Aspectos médico-legales de la ley que reprime el tráfico de estupefacientes (Ley 23.737) / Substance use disorder: forensic issues in Argentina

La ley de estupefacientes promulgada el 11 de octubre de 1989 describe una serie de tipos penales que comprenden distintas conductas relacionadas con el tráfico de estupefacientes a los cuales castiga con un sistema mixto que incluye la aplicación de penas y de medidas de seguridad. El presente artículo reseña los aspectos jurídicos de la ley que convocan conocimientos psicopsiquiátricos y que incluyen una terminología específica (v.g. usador, habitualidad, experimentador, principiante, dependiente, estupefaciente, medida de seguridad) como así también los principios teóricos básicos subyacentes y las principales discusiones suscitadas acerca de los mismos

This article is a review of the main legal issues in illegal drug traffic in Argentina. The penal law includes corrective punishment, educational activities and forced treatment. Forensic issues and legal controversies are discussed

Os crimes no triângulo amoroso: uma discussão psicanalítica historicamente contextualizada a respeito do conceito de violenta emoção no direito penal brasileiro / Crimes in the love triangle: a historically contextualized psychoanalitical discussion about the concept of violent emotion in the Brazilian criminal law

A presente tese tem o objetivo de promover uma análise sobre a norma penal brasileira que versa sobre a violenta emoção, com base no estudo teórico da ação criminal passional. Tem por objeto de estudos a discussão sobre a temporalidade psíquica da ação que sustenta as distinções no instituto jurídico da violenta emoção apresentada nos artigos 28; 65, III, c; 121 § 1º e 129 § 4º do Código Penal Brasileiro. A partir de uma construção genealógica, buscou-se os antecedentes históricos dessas leis, posteriormente, interpretadas à luz de conceitospsicanalíticos e de contribuições da antropologia social acerca do imaginário cultural que sustenta a eclosão e o julgamento de crimes na esfera amorosa. O método de trabalho consistiuem um estudo teórico de caráter dedutivo-construtivo baseado em fontes oriundas de diferentes campos teórico-práticos e também de consultas abertas feitas a juristas e estudiosos dacriminologia. As transformações históricas nos julgamentos indicam uma transposição da antiga indulgência em relação aos criminosos ao atual apelo por recrudescimento das penas,demonstrando que justificar ou punir crimes sob a rubrica da violenta emoção ligados à esfera amorosa representa um sintoma atrelado ao contexto social. O conceito de "violenta emoção" está sujeito a reducionismos teóricos, devido à ênfase dada à dimensão da "culpabilidade consciente" no sistema jurídico, ao predomínio de interpretações ligadas aos aspectospsicofisiológicos do ímpeto, bem como à incipiente atenção dada às condições inconscientes culturalmente determinantes do ato criminal violento em casais. Desse modo, o texto dosreferidos artigos pode servir indevidamente à diminuição da pena em crimes envolvendo casais, assim como a devida atenuação pode ser desconsiderada quando a/o ré/u sofre de privações sociais e psíquicas prolongadas constitutivas de um mal-estar passional por vezes dissociado dotempo da ação...

The following thesis has as its aim the advancement of an analysis of the Brazilian penal normsas they pertain to violent emotion, grounded on the study of the passionate criminal act. Its basis for study is a discussion concerning the psychic temporality of the act that sustains thedistinctions within the juridical institution of violent emotion presented in articles 28; 65, III, c; 121 § 1º et 129 § 4º of the Brazilian Penal Code. From a genealogical construct, the historical antecedents of such laws were targeted and then interpreted in light of psychoanalytic concepts and contributions from social anthropology regarding the imaginary customs that nourish the profusion and judgment of crimes within the sphere of love. The work method hinged on a theoretical study in the deductive-constructive manner based on sources ranging from different theoretical/practical fields and on open interviews with jurists and specialists on criminology. The historical transformations of the trials indicate a transposition from the old indulgencetowards criminals to today’s appeals for the harshening of sentences, showing that justifying or punishing crimes of violent emotion in the sphere of love represents a symptom directly linkedto a social context. The concept of “violent emotion” is not immune to theoretical simplifications, given the emphasis placed on the dimensions of “conscious culpability” withinthe penal law system, the predominance of interpretations linked to the psychic-physiological aspects of the drive, as well as the incipient weight placed on the unconscious, culturally determinant conditions of the criminal act among couples. In this manner, the text in thereferred Articles may unduly serve for the lessening of sentences for crimes involving couples, just as the due attenuation of sentences may be overlooked when the defendant suffers from prolonged social and psychic privations comprised of a discontent often times dissociated from...

Epilepsy and the law--a view from Thailand.

BACKGROUND: Patients with epilepsy often suffer social injustice in many societies. OBJECTIVE: This is a review of current laws dealing with epilepsy and the consequences of this complex disease. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The author looked at reported unjust legal and social acts resulting from epileptic seizures and their results. RESULTS: The author found that accusation of criminal acts, accidents while driving, and job loss are relatively common experiences for epileptics. Such events reflect lack of public understanding. There is inadequate legislation to protect epileptics. Most disturbing areas are ictal behavior misinterpreted as crime, driving while experiencing a seizure, and social discrimination. There is no law dealing with epilepsy in Thailand while considerable progress in this field has been made in Western countries. CONCLUSION: Epilepsy patients are inadequately protected by Thai law. There is an urgent need for education and campaigns for their rights focused on the public, the legal profession, and the health care professionals.

Main steps in crime scene investigation and the role of psychologists

The aim of this study is to scientific investigation of crime scence. In crime scene investigation there are several main steps that are very important. These steps are: Reaction, Security, Search, Analysis, and final step. Studing of different sources showed that crime scence investigation is a group work which must be done coordinately and by a specialized group. In the most of these steps psychologists can play prominent role. This article will explain the five steps and the role of psychologists in all of these steps and in the crime scene investigation

DNA test--a forensic boon.

DNA fingerprinting (DNAFP) profiles can be applied to identify an individual in criminal as well as in civil cases. The main advantage of the technique is its ability to analyse small and environmentally challenged samples and to accurately establish their origins with a high degree of certainty: DNAFP can identify an individual in criminal and civil cases eg, rape, kidnapping, assassination and so on. The forensic DNA analysis can be stored in a data bank. It can help in crime prevention by giving the information of potential criminals. Reliability of DNA technique is very important. In paternity and maternity identification, when called for, DNA testing plays very much positive role.

Expansión de la industria tabacalera y contrabando: retos para la salud pública en los países en desarrollo / Expansion of the tobacco industry and smuggling: challenges for public health in developing countries

La industria tabacalera multinacional, siempre en busca de nuevos mercados, ha realizado una agresiva expansión hacia naciones de ingreso medio y bajo. Al mismo tiempo se ha producido un marcado incremento en el contrabando de tabaco, especialmente de cigarrillos. Ese contrabando provoca graves pérdidas fiscales a los gobiernos de todo el mundo, erosiona las políticas de control del tabaco e incentiva a la delincuencia organizada internacional. Por otro lado, el contrabando provoca incrementos en el consumo y la demanda de tabaco, los cuales benefician a las tabacaleras. Más aún, existe evidencia de que la industria tabacalera internacional ha propiciado el contrabando de cigarrillos e incluso ha participado directamente en el mismo. Al mismo tiempo, realiza costosas campañas de cabildeo entre los gobiernos para combatir los impuestos y favorecer sus intereses. Los estudios académicos y la evidencia empírica demuestran que es posible avanzar en el control del tabaquismo mediante el incremento de las tasas fiscales sin provocar incrementos significativos en el contrabando. Para ello es necesario combatir este delito mediante acciones y controles multilaterales como los que fueron establecidos en el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT), el cual presenta las bases para enfrentar el contrabando mediante un enfoque internacional y global. También es necesario aumentar radicalmente las penas judiciales al contrabando y hacer responsable a la industria tabacalera, incluyendo fabricantes y distribuidores, por el destino final de sus exportaciones.